ED 671 Unit 1.c Situative
Read this: Learning in school and out AND Cross-cultural and historical perspectives on the development of consequences of education Download and view this PowerPoint presentation: Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development Consider these questions as you read (same questions in Moodle):
Review the material below before entering discussion in Moodle : Introduction to the Situative Perspective (Socio-cultural) on Learning Sociocultural Theory Current conceptualizations of sociocultural theory draw heavily on the work of Vygotsky (1986), as well as later theoreticians (see, for example, Wertsch, 1991, 1998). According to Tharp and Gallimore (1988) "This view [the sociocultural perspective] has profound implications for teaching, schooling, and education. A key feature of this emergent view of human development is that higher order functions develop out of social interaction. Vygotsky argues that a child's development cannot be understood by a study of the individual. We must also examine the external social world in which that individual life has developed...Through participation in activities that require cognitive and communicative functions, children are drawn into the use of these functions in ways that nurture and 'scaffold' them" (pp. 6-7). Kublin et al (1998) succinctly state that "Vygotsky (1934/1986) described learning as being embedded within social events and occurring as a child interacts with people, objects, and events in the environment" (p. 287). Considering the contributions to sociocultural theory to understanding the development of communication, Adamson and Chance (1998) argued that "...There are two particularly noteworthy aspects to a Vygotskian approach to social interactions. First, it is fundamentally cultural. Caregivers are agents of culture (Trevarthen, 1988) who set an infant's nascent actions within an intimate setting that is deeply informed by the caregiver's cultural knowledge. Caregivers cannot help but view infants' expressions as meaningful within the human sphere of their own culture. Infants, in complement, are quintessential cultural apprentices who seek the guided participation of their elders" (Rogoff, 1990). Second, the notion of a zone of proximal development reveals a pattern of developmental change in which a phase of adult support precedes a phase of independent infant accomplishment. Each cycle begins with a newly displayed behavior, such as a smile, a visually directed reach, or a babble. The adult's reaction and interpretations transform the infant's emerging behavior into a social act. In essence, the child induces the adult to recruit the act for communication (Bakeman, Adamson, Konner, & Barr, in press). After many experiences of supported expression, the child gradually masters an action that is qualified with cultural meaning. The act has passed through the zone of proximal development during which the adult has educated the child in its use. (p. 21) The same thing can happen in the classroom when a "more knowlegable other" (the teacher, other student, book...) helps or "scaffolds" the learner from a lower point of cognitive development to a higher one by modeling, supporting, and generally challenging and encouraging. Clearly, sociocultural theory is much more complex than this brief description might lead one to believe. Nonetheless, the aspects described above are important components to consider when examining the communicative and cognitive development of learners. *Much of the above text was borrowed from here. Where are the roots of the situative/sociocultural perspective? Albert Bandura - Foundations of social learning Bandura: Classroom learning is influenced by not only the instructional delivery but also by the interactions that take place in that classroom. These interactions - person and environment - influence behavior and behavior as well influences or has an effect on the environment. Psychological functioning is explained in terms of a continuous reciprocal interaction of persons and the environment. Observational learning is an important component of Bandura's theories of social learning. Through observation, learning takes place. Modeling specific techniques and behaviors, intentionally or otherwise, allows students to process information cognitively without necessitating direct experience. The prominent processes involved here are symbolic, vicarious, self-regulatory. People have the ability to make choices about what to attend to in a learning situation and what not to attend to. The symbols we use in dealing with the environment act as ways of representing guides for future use – done through observation. Problem solving is an example of how humans use representations saved from future observations for use in current. By possessing the capability to look at possible alternatives or consequences in problem situations we are able to alter our behavior which in turn alters our environment. Self-regulatory processes allow us to use the cognitive supports we have in looking at possible options in a given situation that allow us to actually control the situation and in turn our environment as well. Intervening thoughts as they are called, play an important role in decision making that causes behavior changes through observations of reinforced and non-reinforced actions. Learning through modeling Social learning theory supports learning through modeling in connection with information processing. By observing we are able to make symbolic representations through cognitive processes of the behavior being modeled and later use these representations as a guide for future presentations of appropriate behaviors. In order for humans to store these representations, we must attend to the features of the modeled behavior that we see as significant. Our attention to this modeled behavior is selected based on what representations we already have stored which also contributes to what we extract as important for use. Our symbolic representations are then stored in memory. The images that we store are retained as such and stimulated by sensations or perceptions of external events. Children can experience delays in their imitative behaviors. It is not necessary that the experience or action follows immediately after the observation of the modeled behavior. New schemata are created that incorporate the modeled behavior and represented by verbal symbols and observable traits of the observed actions. Selective imitation, (delayed action of modeled behavior) is seen by Bandura as a more detailed version of Piaget's imitation. People are able to select their behaviors, stimulus to respond to and how to respond to them because of the prior experiences they have had and are able to rely on their own attention to stimulus in making conscious choices about which behaviors to imitate and which to let go. These conscious choices allow humans to learn through and with others. Reinforcement in this case can be seen as occurring prior to the actual experience. People can anticipate the consequences which helps in the decision making process. Social learning theory also exhibits ideas that everyday situations are in fact the basis for observational learning. Symbolic modeling in everyday situations - mass media in particular, have influential roles in shaping behaviors. Modeling can be abstract in that the observer can discern common attributes among observed behaviors which allows them to formulate new rules through which to behave in ways that have similar characteristics. This also allows the observer to differentiate between various circumstances or situations to behave in which ways. Innovations Modeling can assist in transmitting new styles of behavior. Through modeling people are able to learn new methods for doing things which can be achieved through pictures, symbols and verbally. New methods are however, a risk. Consequences also need to be observed in a positive way before others might engage in the new observed behavior. Diffusion of innovations may be expedited by allowing risks to be minimized as well as exhibiting the positives of the new behavior. Lev Vygotsky - sociohistorical persective Following Bandura's work in social learning theory comes Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist. Vygotsky also theroized about the social nature of learning beyond the cognitive and behaviorist paradigms including the belief that people can learn vicariously through others' experiences and that signs and symbols play a major role in our cognitive representations of our surrounding. Vygotsky's addition to this theory stems more in the adaption of cultural acquistions and social relationships as well as the importance of culutre and environment in learning. Vygotsky also addresses the humanness of mental activity. Animals do not share in the human mental processes that attribute to learning. Learning is a social process with internalization of cultural signs and symbols and is dependent on culture and social relationships. Tools and symbols are important in learning. Tools are an outwardly oriented method for gaining knowledge and signs an inward, internalized mechanism. Culture plays a major role in the children's learning by providing them with goals and the methods through which to achieve them. Language, acquired as a cultural tool is used in our organization of thinking. We use our language to process the interpersonal (interaction with others) to the intrapersonal (interactions with our own thoughts and experiences). Interactions in Educational Settings Interactions of students in classrooms is largely exhibitive of Vygotsky's theories of learning. The students in a classroom are brought together in that specific setting for the purposes of learning. This brining together forces the "what" of learning to be imposed by external rather than internals sources. In our everyday learning experiences we learn from external sources but relying on our own selection and mental attention as well as the internal symbolic representations already present. Theoretical Foundations Wilson and Myers draw a connection between situated cognition and behaviorism and information processing in terms of theoretical bases. Behaviorism is connected through its inclusion of the environment as influencing individual behavior and vice versa. Information processing as an early aspect of cognitive science posits the symbolic representation of what individuals attend to in their environment as central to storage and retrieval processes, again, including the environment as a necessary component of learning. In both cases, behaviorism and information processing the environment has a role, though not inactive, but connected nevertheless. Situated cognition has differing epistemologies depending on the context or theorist in question. In anthropological circles, cultural meaning construction is prevalent, and the cognitive aspects are not emphasized as much. Cognitive perspectives focus on the individual as well as the social processes. (Wilson and Myers, 2000). As an alternative to information processing, situated cognition also considers the context in which learning takes place. Individuals learn within a larger social context in which they are able to interact to construct meaning. Schools have their own situativity in which learners learn to be students, not to transfer skills learned in schools to real life situations. (Suchman's interpretation of Lave, 1993). Focus moves from individual in to individual in the environment. Discourse and Cognitive Apprenticeships Discourse communities where learners not only learn through the tools and contextual settings, but also through their interactions and communication in that community. People in these kinds of communities learn to think and how to think through conversational exchanges with peers and others in authentic and meaningful ways. (Wilson and Myers, 2000). Enculturation of students through authentic activity and social interaction (cognitive apprenticeships) much like is done with craft apprenticeships. (Brown, et. al, 1989). Tasks are authentic and familiar to the extent that discoveries can be made and students are able to generate solutions through the guidance of a model. Learning is achieved through collaboration, social interaction and social knowledge construction in learning communities and cultures. References Adamson, L. B., & Chance, S. E. (1989). Coordinating attention to people, objects, and language. In A. M. Wetherby, S. F. Warren, & J. Reichle (Eds.), Transitions in prelinguistic communication (pp. 15-38). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. Brown, J. S.; Collins, Allan; and Guguid, P., (1989). Situated Cognition and the Culture of Learning, Educational Researcher, Jan./Feb. 1989, p. 32-41. Herrington, J. and Oliver, R. (2000) Critical characteristics of situated learning. Online publication: http://www.cowan.edu.au/lrn_sys//educres/article1.html Kublin, K. S., Wetherby, A. M., Crais, E. R., & Prizant, B. M. (1989). Prelinguistic dynamic assessment: A transactional perspective. In A. M. Wetherby, S. F. Warren, & J. Reichle (Eds.), Transitions in prelinguistic communication (pp. 285-312). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. Tharp, R. G., & Gallimore, R. (1988). Rousing minds to life: Teaching, learning, and schooling in social context. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Vygotsky, L. (1986). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Wertsch, J. V. (1991). Voices of the mind: A sociocultural approach to mediated action. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wertsch, J. V. (1998). Mind as action. New York: Oxford University Press. Wilson, B. G. and Myers, K. M., (2000). In Theoretical Foundations of Learning Environments, Situated Cognition in Theoretical and Practical Context. Lawrence Earlbuam Associated, Inc., Publishers. Edited by David Jonassen and Susan Land.
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