`R315 EXAMPLES OF WAYS OF BEING RELIGIOUS`

BY PROFESSOR DALE CANNON Email: cannodw@wou.edu

Right Action: A Means to Prosperity of Body and Mind.
Cory Aders
R 315, Paper One

     In the religious faith commonly known as Mormonism (actually titled The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints) there is a code of health that is believed to be law from God and used to judge worthiness while also bringing blessings to those who are obedient. It is called the Word of Wisdom.
     For obedience to this code of health one is supposed to abstain from “tobacco, strong drinks and hot drinks.” These were later interpreted by the man whom the Mormons believe to be their first latter-day prophet (the religion’s founder, Joseph Smith) as tobacco, liquor, tea and coffee. It is reported to have been received as a revelation from God to Smith at Kirkland, Ohio, February 27, 1833. For a description of the circumstances surrounding it’s reception I quote from the preface to it:
    As a consequence of the early brethren using tobacco in their meetings, the Prophet (meaning Joseph Smith) was led to ponder upon the matter; consequently he inquired of the Lord concerning it. This revelation, known as the Word of Wisdom, was the result (Smith 175).
Since those times there have been added “harmful drugs” which include those commonly called recreational drugs (McConkie 845).
     As a standard for judgment, the Word of Wisdom is seen as a key form of obedience by the church members and is part of every interview pertaining to worthiness for such things as entrance into the Temple. (For Mormons, Temples are different than the regular meetinghouses or churches. To them, they are sacred places where God may enter and anyone unworthy may not.) The reason for the Word of Wisdom being a standard of judgment is that to obey is thought to bring blessings. Blessings which are enumerated in a book of what are believed to be modern revelations and have been compiled since the advent of the church. This book, the Doctrine and Covenants, states that not only ought the members to abstain from the aforementioned things but also to use “. . .the beasts of the field and the fowls of the air, and that which climbeth upon the trees and walketh upon the earth. . .” for whatever need may arise, be it food, clothing, housing, or most any other need (McConkie 846, Smith 176).
     The blessings that are said to come from obedience to the Word of Wisdom include spiritual knowledge and understanding, and increased physical capacity. For a member not to obey this law of the church is not only to loose blessings but to act counter to God’s command. Originally though, it was not taken to be a commandment. It was later instituted as such (by the second latter-day “prophet,” Brigham Young) because of apathetic response by the original members in obeying it (most of the men of the church used alcohol and tobacco.)
     The attitude of subservience to God by the church members in obedience to this “law” focuses attention on the correct way of carrying out one’s responsibilities to God and to the church. It is an example of the way of Right Action. To not obey, meaning to not abstain from the aforementioned things, denies a member access to the Temple (where only “worthy” members are permitted to enter) and to hold a position in the church. (The church is run and administered by the “worthy” members and does not have a paid clergy.) Disobedience to the Word of Wisdom is believed to create a spiritual rift between the member and their contact with God. Obedience is seen as a valve, and to disobey is to shut the valve and not allow God to commune with the person. To even be a teacher of a class of rowdy ten-year-olds requires obedience to the Word of Wisdom. Persons cannot be members in communion with God, according to Mormon practice, unless they obey this counsel.

References

Cannon, Dale. Six Ways of Being Religious: A Framework for Comparative Studies of Religion.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1996.
McConkie, Bruce R. Mormon Doctrine. Second edition. Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1966.
Smith, Joseph. “Section 89.” Doctrine and Covenants. Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus
Christ of Latter-Day Saints, 1988.

Jewish Prayer: A Way of Devotion
Cory Aders
R 315, Paper Two

     Tefilah, derived from the Hebrew word for judgment, translates to the English word for prayer. Although a people known for their fastidiousness in relation to religious things, the Jewish people have practices which cater to the emotional outpouring of their souls. Prayer is a principal practice which aims at such a release of emotion for a Jew.
     The term hithpallel is also translated as prayer and has a particular meaning that the English term fails to encompass. Hithpallel is a reflexive verb, a verb connoting action upon oneself. It translates as “to judge oneself” (Burnbaum 657). Jewish prayer is done in one of two ways: as a congregation or in a group, or as a singular person speaking as if to God. The attitude of judging oneself before God is part of what brings the Jew his or her sense of love for the power that God is said to have over “his people.”
     In ancient times, as in the time of the Jewish patriarch Abraham, prayers were done as though they were a personal, open conversation with God. Things have changed over time. Now, a prayer is offered, for the most part, from those prescribed in the Hebrew Prayerbook. This is a collection of written text, that was written over the span of 2,000 years by people known to the Jews as prophets, psalmists, legalists, poets and rabbis (Burnbaum 657). These prayers are used on different occasions in different ways, but the part of prayer being observed in this paper is the attitude taken toward prayer and the place of it in the lives of the Jews.
     A prayer, for a Jew, is most often done aloud in the first-person plural (we). This brings in the attitude that they are part of something more than themselves as individuals: a community of Jews. The purpose of prayer for a Jew is not to express him or herself but, “...in its highest form and at its most sincere levels. . .” to perform “. . .’a service of the heart’ (avodah she’blev).” This part of their spirituality is heart-felt devotion: an outpouring of emotion that is motivated on a personal level and realized on a community level (Burnbaum 657, Donin 159).
     Devotional forms of worship are not, however, what serve as a focus of how Jews center their lives on God. Rather their religious fervor is mainly focused into correct or right actions (or mitzvah) according to what is taken to be God’s command. They also often utilize sacred ritual in the performance of their duty to God. Devotion is only a part of why and how a prayer is performed by an observant Jew.
     A morning, noon, and evening prayer is supposed to be said. To pray more often is encouraged. Occasion is plentiful for times to pray. But a prayer done without a full purpose of heart is, for a Jew, a meaningless and worthless prayer. Only those done with concentration on the task of performing up to the standard of “a service of the heart” are valid in the eyes of an observant Jew.

References

Burnbaum, Philip. A Book of Jewish Concepts. Revised edition. New York: Hebrew Publishing
    Company, 1975.
Cannon, Dale. Six Ways of Being Religious: A Framework for Comparative
    Studies of Religion. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1996.
Donin, Rabbi Hayim Halevy. To Be a Jew. New York: Basic Books, 1972.
Klein, Isaac. A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice. New York: The Jewish Theological
    Seminary of America, 1979.

The Way of Reasoned Inquiry
as Exemplified in Judaism
Cory Aders
R 315, Fieldwork Paper

     The study of scripture in groups, where discussion and debate can happen, is a traditional Jewish practice. Here in the United States, though, our rushed society leaves a person little time for such things. Here in the United States this practice is waning. Traditionally the Torah and Talmud are studied. (The Torah is more or less the first five books of the Old Testament of the Christian Bible, and the Talmud consists in the ancient writings on the law, included in what is called the Mishnah, and the commentaries of later scholars, known as the Gemara.)
     A purpose of such study is to gain an insight into God’s will. It is a way of getting closer to God by knowing Him better, according to Jewish belief. Part of their faith lies in doing what, according to the Torah, God commands. One of those commands is to study the laws of God (these being found in the Torah and expounded upon in the Talmud.) Another purpose for a person of Jewish heritage is well stated in a plaque over the library door in the synagogue Congregation Neveh Shalom. It reads, ”Dedicated to the pursuit of knowledge of our greatest heritage.” They feel a need to identify with Jews of the past. A final reason would be to develop good skills in logical debate and reasoning. These things are very important to traditional Jews.
     In order to aptly study an example of the way of Reasoned Inquiry I attended a study class. It was at 2900 SW Peaceful Lane in Portland, Oregon. These classes were held on Tuesday evenings, from 5:00p.m. to 5:45p.m. I went on the evening of the 5th of May.
Upon arrival I found a large synagogue with a nearly empty driveway. I entered the building and, since no one was in sight, I headed down the main hallway to find someone. The first door open was that of the library. A woman was seated at a table, reading. She asked if I needed help and I explained why I had come (to observe the group study.) She said, “Well you’re in luck . . . you’ve found the right place.” She then proceeded to tell me more of how the class studied and from what book at the time.
     They studied from a modern English version of the Talmud. It still contained the writings in the original Hebrew, but was also translated and had commentary to follow. The Talmud is divided into sections that pertain to one of three different themes. The one they were in was called the Bava Metzia. The modern books were organized by pages as found in the original versions of the Talmud. This meant that multiple pages were labeled as “Chapter 4, page 52A3,” for example. Also, the Hebrew writing on the pages had a format of it’s own. In the Hebrew version, the parts of the Talmud to study by are the Mishnah and the Gemara. The Mishnah is written to the inside of the pages and the Gemara to the outside of the pages and the Torah text is in a block in the middle. It is all traditionally written without the vowels, in the Hebrew version.
     The next person to arrive after me was an elderly lady named Netty. She came in and had a story about her great-grandson to share with everyone as they came. The interesting part of the story is how it relates to the topic of this paper. This seven-year-old great-grandson of Netty’s had followed an organized line of reasoning in order to accomplish his goal. The story goes that he had been pestering his mother and she asked him, to keep him preoccupied, to help her tell people why she ought to be elected to the schoolboard. He sat down and wrote out four reasons, all valid, pertaining to what would be needed in a good electee to a schoolboard! The correlation to the topic is that the culture from which this boy comes emphasizes learning by organized reasoning. At seven years of age this boy was able to show the difference between himself and other children his age because he is a Jew.
     Everyone “had” to hear the story as they came in. Then the Rabbi arrived. He was Rabbi Stampfer. He led the discussion throughout the entire time. After he began, others would express their own ideas and arguments as they saw something different to interject. There was no hand-raising or, “well, I think . . ,” but each person would simply begin talking as another finished. No one was ignored. No preference to hearing the men first was notable.
     Some of the interesting differences for me were for the whole affair to not begin with a prayer of some sort. I am accustomed to a prayer beginning every activity done with a religious intent, coming from a Christian background. Another difference that was expected was the wearing of the kepats for the men.
     Before beginning, Rabbi Stampfer asked who I was and what I was doing. He said that he had never had an observer who wasn’t a Jew in attendance, but that I was welcome. As each topic of study was brought forth, Rabbi Stampfer would read the Hebrew text for everyone to hear, then translate it into English. After translating it, he would look at me and restate the phrase so that more of the context was given and I could follow the topic of the discussion. I felt not like an intruder, but an observer or beginner who was very welcome to participate.
     The discussion centered around the coinage used in the time near the beginning of the Common Era. Those monetary denominations being the shekel and two more lesser denominations. The shekel was the one in question. The Talmud proposed that for a shekel to lose value it gets used and rubbed and shaved off until it no longer weighs the amount that it’s supposed to represent. Whatever the cause, at what value does it no longer become passable as a shekel? This discussion became the pursuit of the group for the entire time; including the idea that it can become m’talteleen (ritually unclean) if it passes below half of it’s original weight. (At half the weight, it is no longer money, but an object, and subject to the laws that govern ritual uncleanliness.) At this point, it is said to require destruction through: a hole being put through it to make it obvious that it is no longer money, or bent beyond repair, or cut so as to remove too much and make it obvious that some has been removed.
     According to an ancient Rabbi, Ammi, it may also be sold for it’s metal value, to be reminted. And also in the Gemara, according to Rava, at one isar per dinar (a ratio of 1/24) it’s use changes from questionable into fraud. And finally, the time ended with a discussion over who is protected and who might be deceived under this system.
     Their reasons at the beginning, of needing to study these things not for the literal value it could serve in today’s society, but for insight into the interactions that people have and have had throughout time are important for not being deceived nor taking advantage of another, even by accident. There is obvious wisdom in having such a practice. It has value for all of society and for the individual. Both will reap benefits of equality and fairness.
     As a whole, Judaism would be commonly considered a way of Right Action. In this instance, the objective of the action is to intellectually gain a greater understanding of God so as to know Him better and increase in one’s relationship to God. This orientation earns this instance of practice the label of being a way of Reasoned Inquiry. This people, who call themselves “God’s chosen people,” not only find at-one-ment through obedience to God, but also through knowledge and study of the things they take to be His will and pleasure.

References

Burnbaum, Philip. A Book of Jewish Concepts. Revised edition. New York:
    Hebrew Publishing Company, 1975.
Buxbaum, Yitzhak. Jewish Spiritual Practices. Northvale, NJ: J. Aronson
     Publishing, 1994.
Cannon, Dale. Six Ways of Being Religious: A Framework for Comparative
    Studies of Religion. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1996.
Donin, Rabbi Hayim Halevy. To Be a Jew. New York: Basic Books, 1972.

The Sacred Rite of Ghusl in the Islamic Tradition
Cory Aders
R 315, Paper Four

      Right Actions are very important to Muslims. While this is so, there are elements of other ways within their practices. One of those present is that of Sacred Rite. Ghusl is one of these rites. Ghusl refers to the washing or bathing of the entire body.
      The actual practice of ghusl is done in order to symbolically cleanse the body of impurity and prepare oneself for prayer and fasting. The need for this rite is also important because of its reason for being necessary. Ghusl is specifically to be done by women before sexual relations with their husbands. It is also to be employed afterward, as well as after menstruation, and nocturnal emission. These states of being are considered janabah or physically unclean, and understandably so. Ghusl must be preceded by niyya or a declaration of the intention to do ghusl. Although water would commonly be used, if it is not available, dust may be used. This is a practice that would have originated because of the climate of the founding places of Islam (the Near East.)
      Muhammad is said to have mentioned that, “Purification is half of faith.” As a Muslim one would have a sense of creating a space and time for the communication with Allah to proceed. A sense that to do ghusl is to prepare for the presence of divinity, wherever one may be. It is a Sacred Rite that prepares one’s personal space, symbolically, as a place into which the presence of the divine may be also. For a Muslim this is a thing which sets them apart from the world around them and allows them to feel transported, in a way, into a place where openness and humility before Allah may be expressed.
      This practice is not one that is necessarily practised well or correctly by all or even most of Islam. It is noted in the research that it is not very well attended to.
References

Cannon, Dale. Six Ways of Being Religious: A Framework for Comparative
Studies of Religion. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1996.
Bousquet, G. H. “Ghusl.” Encyclopedia of Islam. 1965 ed.
Yusuf, Imtiyaz. “Rites of Passage.” The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World.
1995 ed.

Anointing of the Sick in Roman Catholicism as an example of the way of Shamanic Mediation
Cory Aders
R 315, Paper Five

     Roman Catholicism has much of the faith of the Catholic people centered in the way of Sacred Rite. In the following instance, though, there are clearly elements of Shamanic Mediation along with that of Sacred Rite. The instance is in the case of healing of the sick through anointing.
     Anointing of the sick is considered a sacrament in Roman Catholicism, usually done with olive oil applied to the body. It is also followed with prayer. There are, in Catholicism, variations. This is especially true when looking at specific instances in specific locations.
     The history of anointing, according to J. P. McClain in the New Catholic Encyclopedia, stems from multiple local traditions during the time of Christ which were utilized for the healing of the sick. These all included the use of olive oil. It was plentiful in the area and had been used in the past for important rites that set one apart from normal existence (as in a coronation), often for divine intervention to come to one’s aid.
     Originally, or as originally as there is record, an anointing of each of the five senses (by touching olive oil to the organ of the sense) and saying a corresponding prayer for each body part was employed. The earliest record of this goes back a little more than a thousand years. There are, however, earlier writings which point out that laypersons also could perform the rite and would take home the anointing oil to do so.
        What makes this a way of Shamanic Mediation is that they are looking for direct intervention by ‘ultimate reality’. They see the anointing as something that, if done, brings or opens a pathway for divine intervention to take place. On top of that, there is also a reason to call this a way of Right Action; this is considered a necessary rite for one’s salvation . . . one simply must receive it sometime.

References

Cannon, Dale. Six Ways of Being Religious: A Framework for Comparative
Studies of Religion. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1996.
Pilch, John J. “Healing.” The Modern Catholic Encyclopedia. 1992 ed..
McClain, J. P. “Anointing of the Sick, I (theology of)” and “Anointing of the Sick, II (liturgy of).”
New Catholic Encyclopedia. 1967 ed.

Examples of Mystical Quest in Buddhism and Christianity
Cory Aders
R 315: Comparative Paper

     Mystical Quest is a way of being religious in which many of the adherents apply a form of meditation. The meditation usually includes a specific set of practices that have been found to make one more aware of all that is going on around them as well as inside, both physically and mentally. The religious part of the practices brings in the aspects of ‘ultimate reality’ with which the participants are familiar (Cannon 22-3). This practice is for the purpose of bringing those who practice it into a particularly close experience of ‘ultimate reality.’ Most believe that the experiences one has are not going to be constantly or consistently direct experiences of ‘the divine.’
     The first example is of Buddhism of the Theravada tradition. Most commonly practiced in the Southeast of Asia, excluding the country of Vietnam. This meditational practice is called Satipatthana. It is done through a process of meditative posture (through sitting, usually,) mindfulness (a controlling of thoughts,) and guided direction of thought (although not specific) (Cannon 233-42).
     The second example is of Eastern Orthodox Christianity’s Hesychasm. This method of meditation stresses the use of the Jesus Prayer as a means for attaining the desired mental and spiritual openness. To focus ones’ attention on the name of Jesus and on its significance for the one praying. There are two ways that one may do this. The first is to use the prayer at any points in the day in which one has a moment to oneself; be it in a hold-up in traffic, a minute between phone calls at work, or as one is waking up in the morning (Cannon 242-56).
     Remarkably, there are many similarities that can be found between the two ways of meditation. One of those is in the idea that ‘ultimate reality’ can be accessed through these methods. It is not the same conception of ‘ultimate reality,’ but a correlative view that if one pursues meditation on a regular basis and in the prescribed way one may be able to come into the presence of ‘ultimate reality’ and be in direct contact with it.
     Another point of similarity is in how each teaches that in order to transcend the conscious part of the self a focusing on the workings of the body is required. For the Buddhist, one notes the parts of the body that are touching the ground and focusing on each momentarily. The Christian focuses his attention on the body also, but on the hands passing a rosary through them, and also on creating a rhythm with the saying of the prayer and one’s breathing. (This part, of controlled or regulated breathing, is an element in both that helps the person center their thoughts on something other than the world around them.) This part of the practice is not for everyone and it is explicitly stated that it ought to be done with the assistance of a spiritual guide. And both point to the end goal of transcending oneself in the experience as the final capacity to be obtained by a practitioner (Cannon 235, 251).
     A final similarity is in the result of much practice and concentration. After a time, one may develop the capacity to not even think about “praying”, or “being Mindful”, and yet be doing it continuously. This might be seen as having attained to a level of insight that only few obtain and/or as an obtaining of “grace” for salvation.
     The emphases put on the different aspects of the meditations differs between the two ways. For example, from Theravada Buddhism an emphasis not in the Eastern Orthodox way is that of posture. For the Buddhists one must be in a sitting position or, if incapacitated, may be laying down. The Christian version is to be in a comfortably attentive position, but only with loose recommendations, no prescriptions.
     Another point of departure between the two methods is in the conception of what is to be obtained through the encounter with ‘ultimate reality.’ Christianity, according to Bishop Kallistos, seeks a relationship with God, as they know him to be, on a personal basis. Not that a conversation is going to ensue, but that one ought to seek to know God better through the relationship developed. On the other hand, Buddhism (in this example) looks for an opening of awareness onto the oneness of everything that exists, and to find peace in the encounter of selflessness.
     As examples of the way of Mystical Quest, as laid out in Cannon’s book, “Six Ways of Being Religious,” each has as its focus the ideal of coming into contact with whatever the religion takes to be ‘ultimate reality’. This is accomplished through a form of ascetic life and meditation which is thought by the adherents to go above and beyond normal human conscious experience. The intended sentiments are for one to come to this way of life seeking a joining of their inner self to whatever is taken to be ‘ultimately real.’
      In both of the preceding examples they seek to experience ‘ultimate reality’ in a way that most people don’t. They seek to be personally connected, whether with or without their own personal ego intact. The answers they seek are the ‘reality’ of how things are and not as they appear to the consciousness and physical senses. Thus, the authors of the texts on how to meditate and pursue their own experience of ‘reality’ expect that the reader is looking for a means of going beyond this physical and mental existence, in some sense, and meet with what is, for them, ‘ultimate reality’ (Cannon 63).
     In these forms of religiousness the participants take particular note of the passages of scripture that are guidelines (or can be taken as such) for coming to experience ‘ultimate reality.’ They hunt not for the feelings or things that one ought to do, but for the ways in which ‘ultimate reality’ is brought into direct connection with man. Because of the discipline that one must have in one’s life in order to have time to pursue such experiences; for they can’t be done in a few minute attempt, the people who seek a way of Mystical Quest usually practice in a monastic community of some form. This allows time to be taken for personal meditation and reflection. It may be done in groups, at least in some forms. But, for the most part, it is practiced within the confines of a community of those seeking a similar experience.
     Ideally, these communities would be the way that all people live. But they understand that to pursue such a life takes more of a commitment than most people can put into a religious practice.
The differences of these ways may be less obvious than between other ways. (Part of this would be due to the fact that many people don’t have any experiences to relate to this sort of practice.) There are splits in how they observe ‘ultimate reality,’ in how they each prepare themselves for such a life and in what is permissible as forms of meditation (but this can be between different subtraditions from one general religious background.)
     The experiences of each of those who would practice Mystical Quest would be fairly similar, at least in outward descriptions. While the personal details of each experience would be subjective to the framework of the religion from which they come. This is not to say that their experiences are the same, only that to an outsider it may easily appear so. Anyone who would pursue a way of Mystical Quest is looking for a similar experience of ‘ultimate reality’ that will go beyond the conscious realm of things . . . into a deeper insight into how things are and where things come from and how they always will be.

References

Cannon, Dale. Six Ways of Being Religious: A Framework for Comparative Studies of Religion.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1996.

Final Exam: R 315
Cory Aders
R 315

     There are multiple ways in which one can study religion. One of those ways is comparatively. This is called the phenomenology of religion. Two books which come from this orientation are by William Paden and Dale Cannon. Paden’s book is titled, “Interpreting the Sacred: Ways of Viewing Religion” which will be called “Interpreting” from here on out. Dale Cannon’s book, “Six Ways of Being Religious: A Framework for the Comparative Studies of Religion” that will go by “Six Ways” for the rest of the paper.
     Although the phenomenology of religion is classified in many ways Cannon and Paden have two distinct points of view. For Paden, phenomenology of religion is a manner of studying religions that looks only to the similarities and can very well ignore the differences. This may be so in some cases, but not all. Cannon sees phenomenology of religion as capable of noting the similarities and the differences.
     According to Cannon, to study religions in an empathetic manner is the only way in which one is able to capture the view of the insider, that thereby one may understand their feelings, to a degree. He calls it “empathetic objectivity” when one does so without sounding as though one is an insider (Cannon 17-20).
     Paden sees the ideal point of view as being one where the interpreter acknowledges his/her bias(es) in interpretation and includes the relative cultural and social understandings used to interpret. He calls this a relativist perspective. It is related to the interpreter as well as to what is being interpreted (Paden 133-4).
In their two varying perspectives there are areas of difference. One is in how the capacity of the individual interpreting is seen. Cannon would say that a person does have the capability to be objective, yet also understand as though one were an insider. Paden thinks that such an understanding is impossible, or, at least very unlikely. They differ, also, in their respective conceptions of the validity of what the insider sees and feels. For Cannon, that is part of the interpretation. When looking at a specific phenomenon one takes into account the feelings and reports of the insider. Paden would not use the insiders thoughts and views as much more than possible corroboration for his interpretation.
     Paden would say that Cannon overestimates the capacity of people to see things from the others’ “moccasins,” so to speak. Cannon would oppose the idea that the phenomena can only be understood as an interpretation of something that cannot be understood thoroughly from the outside. Paden’s view could be seen as pessimistic, even if valid for some peoples’ capability to understand.
     In Paden’s book, “Interpreting,” he does give a set of ways that religious phenomena may be classified; similar to Cannon’s ways as defined in “Six Ways.” The first of his categories is Ecstatic/Emotional Experience, relating to the emotionally charged versions of experiencing god or spirit. His second is Contemplative Wisdom and Introspection that is seen in the focus on insight. Third, Sacrifice and Asceticism. It is based on the practices of renunciation of worldly things and the sublimation of ones’ desires. Fourthly is the Ethical, relating to interpersonal relations and the correct manner of carrying them out. And fifth, Paden sees Faith as a separate way in which one can express their religious belief. He does note that this is just a sample of the ways in which religion can be measured. (Paden 121-2).
     Cannon’s six ways include the following. The way of Shamanic Mediation, in which a medium is used, who is believed to be proficient in spiritual matters, to bring immediate intervention into play in the circumstances. The way of Reasoned Inquiry; where one seeks to know ‘ultimate reality’ through logical processes of study and reasoning. The way of Mystical Quest is where the participants practice an ascetic life or a meditation in order to be open to the reception of experience with ‘the divine”. The way of Sacred Rite includes the practices which are believed to bring one into the presence of ‘ultimate reality’ through the rituals being performed. That these events are patterns of things that have happened forever. The way of Right Action is where the insiders do the things they do as living out the way things ought to be and reaping special assistance for it. The way of Devotion encompasses those who are overwhelmed in an emotional purging and supports them through the overbearing trauma of their circumstances (Cannon 51-68).
     The way of Devotion for Cannon is similar to the Ecstatic/Emotional Experience of Paden. Paden’s Contemplative Wisdom and Introspection parallels Cannon’s way of Reasoned Inquiry fairly well. Paden’s Ethical fits with Cannon’s Right Action. And Paden’s Sacrifice and Asceticism meet with Mystical Quest. None of these is a perfect fit, one to one, but Paden and Cannon see similar things going on in religious phenomena. Paden’s Contemplative Wisdom and Introspection could also parallel the way of Mystical Quest, as conceived by Cannon.
     What Paden does in his book is propose that religious comparison inherently leaves out parts and narrows perspectives. In “Six Ways” Cannon is open to criticism, but maintains that one can study a phenomenon without bias and even may be able to add something to the understanding and perspective of the insiders, if done correctly.
     The differences they have appear to be those of different people with different capabilities at empathizing with others. They have different talents developed when it comes to seeing things from another’s’ point of view. Neither is wrong or right, but each has created a theory that suits their respective abilities in openly evaluating religious experience in it’s own context.

References

Cannon, Dale. Six Ways of Being Religious: A Framework for Comparative Studies of Religion.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1996.
Paden, William E. Interpreting the Sacred: Ways of Viewing Religion. Boston: Beacon Press,
1992.

Emily Ocheskey
Religion 315D
Way of Devotion
May 8, 1998

For the Love of Krishna     ". . . their minds and hearts were instantly with Krishna. They embraced him with a great surge of emotion; the peace and joy they felt wiped out all their daily concerns, the constraints that were warp and woof of their embodied lives" (Case 16). This quotation, which is said to have come from a nameless sage, exemplifies devotion as a way of being religious. In the Hindu tradition, Krishna is considered to be the most personable of all the divine beings. Likewise, many Hindus feel closest to Krishna. There are many ways that Hindus express their great love of Krishna, and one of the more elaborate ways is to relive a day in the (eternal) life of Krishna on the stage.
    To continue the sage's story, Krishna disappeared from his adorers when they did something that displeased him. His leaving them devastated Krishna's devotees, so they imagined themselves to be Krishna to feel near him again. As the story goes, after much imaginative identification with Krishna and loving song, his adorers satisfied Krishna with their devotion, and he reappeared to them. The reenactment of a day in the life of Krishna, or the astayam lila, has the same idea as the story: connecting with Krishna by pretending to be him.
    There was a time, according to tradition, when the Lord [Krishna] could be known by profound study, or by ascetic practice, or by proper performance of sacred ritual. But in the degenerate world of today, there is not enough power in these means to reach him. The only means of knowing him is the strongest of all, the power of devotion--of love (Case 18).
Daily devotion to Krishna is practiced in the routine of bathing, dressing, feeding, and honoring his image at the temple and home shrines. This helps Hindus in their endeavor to be constantly mindful of Krishna. They also sing songs and tell stories about Krishna to keep their minds on him, and they do these things with the sense that they are participating in the divine play. So, Krishna-adoring Hindus essentially live every day of their lives for the love of Krishna, but reenacting a day in the life of Krishna isn't an everyday event.
     An astayam lila takes months to prepare. It is based on a lengthy sixteenth-century poem, the Ambrosia of the Sport of Gonvinda. There is very little action in these performances; instead they are focused on creating an emotional atmosphere or mood for everyone involved. The features of this 24-hour reenactment are therefore comparable to a generic characterization of the religious way of devotion: "Indeed, little more is necessary than informal gatherings of devotees joining in devotional praise to ultimate reality, sharing stories of its . . . compassion and grace toward devotees, and offering fellowship and support for one another" (Cannon 59).
     Devotion as a way of being religious involves "personal affection" for a "personal manifestation" of ultimate reality. Furthermore, there is "whole-hearted adoration" and "trust in the providential care" of ultimate reality (Cannon 58-59). Hindus are never far from Krishna in their daily lives because they concentrate on keeping him in their thoughts. An astayam lila brings them even closer in their devotion to the greatly loved Krishna.

Works Cited
Cannon, Dale. Six Ways of Being Religious: A Framework for Comparative Studies of Religion.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1996.
Case, Margaret. "A Day in the Life of Krishna." Parabola 22.1 (1997): 16-20.

Emily Ocheskey
Religion 315D
Way of Wisdom
April 17, 1998

Augustine's God of Wisdom      During the time of early Christian thought, Christian philosophers considered their goal to be the realization of truth. They aspired to understand God, to think like Him, with the intention of becoming more like Him. Christianity was believed to be the ultimate philosophical truth because it made more sense than any other type of philosophical thought. Early Christian philosophers experienced God through their practiced ways of thinking, so in their minds, Christianity and philosophy were one in the same. Likewise, God and reason were one to these thinkers, so they utilized the way of reasoned inquiry or wisdom in their approach to Christianity. One of the leaders in early Christian thought was the philosopher Augustine. He agreed with other Christian philosophers on some points, but he had some revolutionary ideas as well, which led Christianity in a new direction.
     Augustine has been recognized as a model of Christian inquiry through theological and philosophical means. He is responsible for one of two major ways of thinking in the Western church which values truth (as synonymous with God) above all, using inquiry to bring oneself closer to it and unite with truth in a mystical way. It can be concluded that Augustine's Christian philosophy was a combination of reasoned inquiry and mystical quest. A one-to-one dialogue with God, the ultimate truth, was the ideal form of intellectual inquiry to Augustine's way of thinking. One significant result of his Christian philosophy is found in the Benedictine monastic tradition in the West. That tradition, sometimes labeled "monastic theology," esteemed education and the study of theology but conceived theology as serving the greater purpose of mystical quest (Cannon 201-202).
     Three Christian philosophical documents by Augustine, partially reproduced in the anthology, Medieval Philosophy, edited by Herman Shapiro, exemplify his love of God and wisdom. First of all, in his Confessions (54-69) Augustine begins his thoughtful writings about everything from "Evidence of Creation" and "A Frivolous Answer" to "Bodily Motion as Time" by quoting Scripture from the Bible. The Bible is a source of truth to him, and Augustine's writings show his effort to fully understand Scripture as an explanation for everything in life. Philosophical dialogue was another popular philosophical technique, which he exercises in his writing, On the Free Choice of the Will (69-97). Lastly, in the City of God (98-126) Augustine argues that all philosophers, Christian and non-Christian, have a part in the wisdom of God.
     Augustine believed that Christianity was the true philosophy. In comparison to Christian philosophy, Augustine considered the other philosophies of his time to be speculative and inconclusive. He engaged others in logical dialogue to convince them that Christianity was the way to truth. Augustine influenced his fellow Christian philosophers as well as he affected the thinking of the whole religion. He contributed to the way of reasoned inquiry of Christianity, influencing the religion's historical beginning through the Christian ideas of today.

Works Cited
Cannon, Dale. Six Ways of Being Religious: A Framework for Comparative Studies of Religion.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1996.
Shapiro, Herman, ed. Medieval Philosophy. New York: Modern Library, 1964.

Emily Ocheskey
Religion 315D
Way of Right Action
April 10, 1998

A Fight in the Name of Right Action      There is much controversy over the women's movement in Buddhism. Many oppose it, saying it is a corruption of the tradition because they think that the women's activists are trying to custom-make the religion for their own personal satisfaction. The women involved in the movement see a different reality though. They see themselves being restricted in their participation of Buddhism, which, they feel, restricts their connection to ultimate reality. Therefore, their struggle to bring Buddhism and women into an agreeable relationship is the way they believe things are ultimately supposed to be, so this activism qualifies as an example of the way of right action.
     Though Buddha accepted women into his religion, the women (named the bhikshuni sangha) were given an inferior position to the male order (the bhikshu sangha) in Buddhism. In fact, Buddha instructed the women's order to vow subservience to the bhikshu sangha. It's not as easy for some women from the bhikshuni sangha to submit to those rules today. Nevertheless, these women have been kept in their place, so they haven't been able to have the close contact that the men have with the ultimate reality of Buddhism. Because Buddha was a man as opposed to him being a woman, because the Buddhist scriptures have male interpretations, and because women are considered unclean for menstruating, these old ways of thinking are some of the difficult obstacles in the way of the women's movement in Buddhism. Another challenge for the movement is organizing itself into a collective effort. The problem is that there is great disagreement among the women's order; some don't want change, some have decided to reject the religion, some are trying to reform it, and others are forming their own religions. For the most part, the movement gets very little support from the men's order, who argue that the success of the movement would mean the ruin of their religion as Buddha designed it. Furthermore, the bhikshu sangha don't want to lose the devotion of the bhikshuni sangha, which they probably would if the women were to achieve equality. With their advantaged position in Buddhist society, the men's order is also able to gain the support of the majority of the laity (Queen and King 259-287).
     The women's movement in Buddhism faces extremely unfavorable odds, yet it continues to fight for what it believes is right. The women's activists point at what they see as contradictions within the religion "between the way things are and the way things ought to be" (Cannon 56). In addition, they see women's position in Buddhism as an injustice to them, restricting their involvement with ultimate reality as well as preventing Buddhism as a whole from realizing its potential. As a final argument for the women's movement in Buddhism as a way of right action, this movement's motivation is not only for Buddhism to realize the ultimate value of women--it fights for the liberation of all women.

Works Cited
Cannon, Dale. Six Ways of Being Religious: A Framework for Comparative Studies of
Religion. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1996.
Queen, Christopher S. and Sallie B. King, eds. Engaged Buddhism. Albany: State University of
New York, 1996.

Emily Ocheskey
Religion 315D
Way of Sacred Rite/Fieldwork Report
April 27, 1998

Religious Art: An Appraisal      How can a piece of religious art be appraised? It can be judged by artistic standards, but to those who believe that it symbolizes ultimate truth, religious art has infinite beauty and value. While such a work of art is only an object to some, it is never just an object to someone who looks at it with religious reverence. Likewise, one who creates religious art often experiences a connection with ultimate reality during the creative process.
For some persons the arts--especially drama, dance, classical music, and opera, but sometimes literary and visual arts as well--put them in touch with the deepest truths and, at times, convey a sublimity beyond articulation. For such serious, passionate participants in the arts, participation is as much an experience of sacred, sacramental rite as any conventionally religious ritual. This can be as true for the viewer/listener/reader as for the serious performer, composer, or writer (Cannon 97).
    Sister Katherine Knoll, a Roman Catholic Nun, attests to feeling a powerful sensation in her hands as she creates, which she attributes to God's spiritual presence. Her art is a source of religious inspiration to all who see it as a symbol of their beliefs, including Sister Katherine, so her art represents a way of being religious termed as sacred rite.
     To place Sister Katherine's artistic expression of the way of sacred rite in context, it is helpful to know her religious orientation. As she explains, her multiple roles as an individual, a member of a religious community, and a woman, makes her religious position complex:
Even though I am a Roman Catholic Nun, and therefore, a Roman Catholic, within this faith dimension there still is the issue of a person of faith like me, trying to have a personal relationship with God and not one that is a collective group-mind sort of relationship. Also, there is the dimension of being a member of a religious women's community where we share our faith and work to serve God in some apostolic way. In recent years we have begun to courageously define our own relationship with God and decide what metaphor we want to use to describe God that is reflective of a woman's perspective (Knoll 1998).
     Sister Katherine found a way to have a fulfilling relationship with her God through art, and by making religious artwork for others, she has helped others in their personal relationship with God. Since 1988, when she founded a spirituality center called Sophia Center, Sister Katherine has been the director and resident artist.
     Though the Sister usually only creates clay art, she designs many different things for a variety of purposes. One example of what she makes are "functional bowls [called 'Blessing Bowls'] that I inscribe with prayers of blessing. It is a way of making people mindful of the communion they share with their family and friends that is sacred when they break bread and share ways to nurture one another in a holy way. I write the blessings and prayers that come to mind as I am spinning the wheel" (Knoll 1998). In addition, Sister Katherine makes art specifically for sacred ritual and prayer in church services. Another type of art that she does reaffirms that women are valuable to God. Each work of art is accompanied by a tag that explains the meaning behind it, so when a person looks at a piece of religious art for women, they will be able to understand and meditate on it. One of her latest and most significant metaphors was of the Risen Christ with a mirror. It is designed so that in looking at the image of the Risen Christ, a person will see his or her own reflection in the mirror. "It is a piece that invites each of us who call ourselves Christians to really be Christ in the world" (Knoll 1998).
     Just as Sister Katherine's physical, mental, and spiritual ritual of creating enables her to have contact with what she believes is the ultimate truth, others may make contact with that truth by the physical act of looking at religious art, the mental act of thinking about its ultimate meaning, and the spiritual act of tuning in to the spiritual world. Some religions reject religious icons because they associate them with idol worship. That is another example of religious art being criticized as an object instead of a sacred symbol. In her article "The Beauty of Truth," the author writes about how she used to have a resistant attitude toward religious art and how she discovered an empathetically objective appreciation for it. The author demonstrates that empathetic objectivity in her description of the spiritual/visual reality of religious art for people who view it as a symbol of their religious convictions. "In an Orthodox church, the iconostasis forms a whole wall. But so far from regarding it as a wall, the Orthodox regard it as a window--a window into heaven. Indeed, as the thinnest point of separation between Heaven and earth" (Bridges 59).
     Regarding religious art, beauty truly is in the eye of the beholder. To those who see it as a symbol of ultimate reality or truth, aesthetics aren't important; at the same time, a piece of religious art couldn't be more beautiful to people who see it as possessing spiritual significance. The only fair appraisal of religious art then is that it is an expression of the way of sacred rite for those that repeatedly experience the divine in the presence of the art.

Works Cited
Bridges, Linda. "The Beauty of Truth." National Review 49.9 (1997): 58-59.
Cannon, Dale. Six Ways of Being Religious: A Framework for Comparative Studies of Religion.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1996.
Knoll, Sister Katherine. E-mail interview. April 23, 1998.

Emily Ocheskey
Religion 315D
Way of Shamanic Mediation
May 18, 1998

The Quest of One, the Vision of Many     Vision quests are momentous experiences in a Native American individual's life. When such a spiritual journey comes to an end and the person returns to the ordinary world, the experience isn't over. The vision quest becomes even more significant after the quest is complete because the one who has gone on the quest then mediates between the spiritual place he/she was in and the people he/she goes through everyday life with. It is a life-changing experience for the individual, and it influences the spiritual consciousness of all that hear about it as well.
    Power comes from a person's conversation with the supernatural. It comes from an encounter with sentient beings with whom humans share the breath of life. It appears when a human makes contact with the non-human persons of the cosmos. . . . Power comes to people who listen carefully to the storied world around them. It comes when the story of a person's life joins the circle of conversation. Power comes when a person realizes a story that already exists. Power comes when he or she adds a new episode to that story. It comes when the story of a person's life becomes that of life as a whole (Ridington 5).
     The vision quest is shared within the community, but this personal experience isn't as accessible to the public. Anthropologist Robin Ridington went on a quest of her own to hear and learn about the vision quests of Native Americans. In her article "Voice, Representation, and Dialogue: the Poetics of Native American Spiritual Traditions," Ridington relates and respectfully interprets two stories of vision quests from the Dunne-Za people of northeastern British Columbia. One of the stories was told by a dying elder named Japasa about his childhood vision quest. It was his way of "letting go of the helpers he had known most of his life" (Ridington 5). To summarize his story, when he was a boy, he went into the wilderness alone. He got lost--night and rain came, but when he awoke, he saw that he had been protected by a pair of silver foxes. They fed him and wore clothes. Japasa said he could understand their language and that the foxes taught him a song. The wind spoke to him as well and told Japasa it was his friend, and after that, Japasa was able to call the wind and rain. Though the spiritual beings in Japasa's story possessed supernatural power, they were his friends--not his superiors--who shared their power with him. Likewise, another Dunne-Za vision quest story tells of a man who is given the powers of a medicine man by a supernatural being.
    Typical shamanic phenomena include being "filled," "taken over," or "empowered" by a "supernatural" divine spirit to do what is otherwise beyond human capacities; seeking and receiving estatic visions that give direction, purpose, and personal identity; oracular utterances that bestow divine instruction, guidance, and otherworldly knowledge; and going on "spirit journeys" into the other world for the sake of divine instruction, spiritual maturation, or solving some problem in the mundane sphere such as "soul loss" (in which a person has lost the spark of life) (Cannon 61).
     The Dunne-Za vision quest stories in this paper fit the above description of shamanic mediation. In both stories, the men receive supernatural powers. In addition, the stories are shared with family and friends, who get a sense of otherworldy knowledge from the storyteller. People return from vision quests with supernatural powers and knowledge, as mediators between this world and the other.

Works Cited
Cannon, Dale. Six Ways of Being Religious: A Framework for Comparative Studies of
    Religion. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1996.
Ridington, Robin. "Voice, Representation, and Dialogue: the Poetics of Native American
    Spiritual Traditions." The American Indian Quarterly 20.3-4 (1996): 467-488.

Emily Ocheskey
Religion 315D
Comparative Paper
May 29, 1998

A Composite of Two Distinctive Ways of Right Action      To the untrained eye, Buddhism and Christianity appear to have very little in common. The more one learns about the two religions though, the more it becomes obvious that there are many ways of being Buddhist and Christian, and sometimes Buddhists and Christians act a lot alike. For example, though the Sarvodaya Movement in Sri Lanka and the Catholic Worker Movement have their individual differences, their efforts toward right action move in similar directions.
     Contrary to popular belief, there are less differences than people would probably guess there are between the Buddhist Sarvodaya Movement in Sri Lanka and the Catholic Worker Movement in Christianity. Nevertheless, what differences there are are worth considering. First of all, the Sarvodaya Movement takes place in rural Sri Lanka while the Catholic Worker Movement is mainly an urban organization. The different localities of the movements necessitate that they operate in different ways. To help get the word out in the more populated urban areas where the Catholic Worker Movement is in action, the movement relies on the Catholic Worker paper. The Sarvodaya Movement, in contrast, supports itself with the help of the sangha or monastic community, which has a good amount of influence in rural Sri Lanka. In exchange for the monks' assistance, the movement publicly reaffirms the religious order. "As the monks serve as extension agents for the Movement's development program so do the Movement's ideology and expectations serve to revitalize their Order and their sense of vocation, restoring the wider social responsibilities they carried in precolonial days" (Cannon 285). Likewise, for the most part, the Sarvodaya Movement and the government of Sri Lanka have had a cooperative relationship. The Catholic Worker Movement originated from the Catholic Worker paper, which "began during a time of historic crisis," (Cannon 287), so this movement's association with its government hasn't been as pleasant. Dorothy Day and Peter Maurin founded the movement in opposition to capitalism, which they blamed for war and many other instances of human suffering. For that reason, they were considered anarchists and threats to the government. To the Catholic Worker Movement though, Day and Maurin are role models. The Sarvodaya Movement names its founder as A.Y. Ariyaratne, but he doesn't receive the admiration of the two who were responsible for beginning the Catholic Worker Movement.
     In addition to the regional and organizational differences between the two movements, they have distinctive theological beliefs, which affect how they perceive themselves. Sarvodaya means "the awakening and welfare of all," and "the root problem of poverty is seen as being a sense of personal and collective powerlessness" (Cannon 283). Buddhists believe that Buddha experienced an awakening or Enlightenment, which enabled him to transcend the suffering of this world. So, the Sarvodaya Movement incorporates the Buddhist idea of ultimate reality (awakening/Enlightenment) with the way of right action.
     Of the different forms of Buddhism, the theological perspective of Theravada Buddhism seems to have the most significant correlations to that of the Sarvodaya Movement. Theravada means the "way of the elders," and it identifies itself as "the oldest, original, and most authentic from of Buddhism" (which is subjected to much debate) (Cannon 169-170). Preserving authenticity is important to the Sarvodaya Movement as well: "Change has to be authentic and organic in character, from the roots, rather than imposed, mechanistic, and manipulative. The old way of doing things, or some adaptation or evolution of it, may still be the best way" (Cannon 282). Concern about authenticity doesn't negate the movement's open-mindedness, which the whole of Buddhism practices. Sarvodaya is accepting of other religions, open-minded in its interpretation of traditional Buddhist teachings, and it presents guidelines such as the "Four Sublime Abodes" for its followers in a relaxed instead of restrictive way. Open-mindedness and Enlightenment partially overlap each other, though Enlightenment is much more elusive and requires strenuous mental, physical, and spiritual discipline. Meditation requires similar discipline, and it is vital to the Enlightenment that Theravada Buddhism and the Sarvodaya Movement seek. Theravada Buddhism believes that Enlightenment is only attainable to a select few, and those few belong in a monastery. Monks have some of the highest positions within the Sarvodaya Movement. They help lead the movement towards "the awakening and welfare of all."
     In a sense, the Catholic Worker Movement is concerned with "the awakening and welfare of all" as well, but this movement has a different concept of what it means to be awakened. It strives to "awaken" people to Christ's love for them. The Catholic Workers act on their love of Christ by selflessly sharing His love with the less fortunate. They do this because they believe it's what Christ told His people to do in the gospel: "Such actions are typically engaged out of the conviction that as it is done to the least of these persons it is done (simultaneously) to Jesus (Matthew 25:40) and that such actions, done in the right frame of mind, are a way that Jesus carries on his redemptive work in the world in and through the lives of his followers" (Cannon 200). The Catholic Worker Movement is involved in all sorts of charitable activities, but justice is a major priority in the movement and in the Roman Catholic tradition. Roman Catholics believe that Christ appointed them to ensure that there is justice in the world, so the Catholic Worker Movement fights on behalf of the wronged and works to bring about a more just society.
     Personal and social improvement is the goal of both movements. Improvement comes from working towards at-onement with ultimate reality, so the ultimate goal of the Sarvodaya Movement is the Enlightenment of one and all. If everyone was Enlightened, there would be no suffering. The Catholic Worker Movement works to spread Christ's love to all and create a just world in which love, not suffering, reigns. In the Sarvodaya Movement's pursuit of Enlightenment, meditation is a must. Conversely, the Catholic Worker Movement refers to the gospel for an example of how to show love toward Christ and Christ's love for others. Both movements are motivated by the belief that the ultimate reality they believe in can help others. They also hope to come into at-onement with ultimate reality (the highest level of consciousness in Buddhism and a mutual love relationship with Christ for Christians).
     In spite of the various social, theological, and motivational differences between the Sarvodaya and Catholic Worker Movements, they have similar values and principles. Personal and public improvement is one of their shared values. Both movements believe that progressive change starts within individuals who help others change their lives, until eventually, the whole world is at one with ultimate reality. Furthermore, the two movements value all people, and self-sacrifice is integral to both of them. Sarvodaya and the Catholic Workers are revolutionary movements that will resort to civil disobedience if necessary, but they both stress the principle of non-violence.
     They have distinctive beliefs, but the Sarvodaya Movement and the Catholic Worker Movement are both expressions of the way of right action, which have similar concerns and principles. Their differences are in their beliefs, and their mutual participation in the way of right action is where there similarities lie. The most reasonable explanation for this phenomenon is that certain concerns and values are inherent in the way of right action, and the same is true for the other ways of being religious. Therefore, no matter which religions are compared, if the examples are expressions of the same way of being religious, they will have some similarities that are specific to that way of being religious. For example, though Sarvodaya is a Buddhist movement and the Catholic Worker Movement is a Christian movement, they are similar in their: approaches to ultimate reality, concerns, ways of interpreting their scripture, social structures, and their virtues and vices.
     To begin with, both movements approach their respective versions of ultimate reality through appropriate action and attitude. First, they spiritually prepare themselves through meditation or some other means. Then, in a selfless state of mind, they provide various services to the needy. The similar actions of the Sarvodaya Movement and the Catholic Worker Movement are actually similar reactions to shared concerns. Those concerns include human suffering, such as poor living conditions or povery, justice, and people's spiritual well-being. Both movements are creative in their interpretations of scripture as they search for better solutions to the world's problems. As social organizations, the two movements are community-oriented. They are intended to be self-sufficient so that the members of the movement can sustain each other. Neither one wants to be dependent on the larger society, which in the movements opinion, is corrupted. Finally, ideals of the Sarvodaya Movement and the Catholic Worker Movement are virtues such as caring for others, being accepting of all people, and acting out of selflessness rather than self-interest. Self-interest and violence are vices, which fail to meet the ideals of these movements.
     By comparing the movements in terms of their distinctive religious beliefs as well as their similar qualities in the way of right action, it is possible to visualize their similarities and differences as a composite of the two. One either side of the composite, the original images of the distinctive religions appear to be very different. The composite in between them shows that these Buddhist and Christian examples of the way of right action are different, yet the same.

Works Cited

Cannon, Dale. Six Ways of Being Religious: A Framework for Comparative Studies of Religion.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1996.